SERUM CREATININE: The primary clinical biomarker for assessing renal filtration efficiency; elevated levels indicate compromised glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and kidney strain.

BLOOD UREA NITROGEN (BUN) & SERUM UREA: Quantifies nitrogenous waste derived from protein metabolism, helping differentiate between pre-renal dehydration and intrinsic renal damage via the calculated BUN/Creatinine ratio.

SERUM URIC ACID: Evaluates purine clearance and metabolic waste excretion, serving as a critical diagnostic marker for hyperuricemia, painful gouty arthritis, and kidney stone formation.

SERUM ELECTROLYTES (SODIUM, POTASSIUM, CHLORIDE): Assesses fluid balance, neuromuscular stability, and acid-base equilibrium regulated by renal tubule reabsorption and secretion.

CALCIUM & INORGANIC PHOSPHORUS: Evaluates mineral metabolism and secondary endocrine regulation controlled by healthy kidney parenchyma to monitor bone-mineral disease.